Prizreni

Kiel, M.

Prizren

(in Ottoman Turkish orthography, Perzerīn), the second largest city of the former Yugoslav autonomous district of Kosovo-Metohija with about 40,000 inhabitants, the greater part of which are Albanian-speaking Muslims, the remainder Orthodox Serbians, Muslim Turks, Orthodox Vlachs, Roman Catholic Albanians and some Gypsies. Prizren is the only trilingual city of the Balkans. Until the dismemberment of Yugoslavia, Albanian, Serbian and Turkish were fully recognised, with newspapers and periodical published in all three languages and trilingual street name plaques. Till today, Prizren preserved its Ottoman physionomy of the 19th century better than any other city of the Balkans, entire districts being placed under protection of the law on monuments of culture.

In Ottoman times (1455-1912), Prizren was one of the largest cities of the Balkans interior and was an Islamic centre of considerable importance, possessing dozens of mosques and baths, a number of medreses and dervish convents of no less than seven different orders (among which is the Āsitāne of the Ḳarabās̲h̲iyye branch of the K̲h̲alwetiyye) and a library with many old Islamic manuscripts. It was the centre of a sand̲j̲aḳ throughout the Ottoman period, and a number of important poets and writers of Ottoman literature lived and worked in this city.

Prizren is situated at the southern edge of the fertile plain of Metohija, at the place where the small river Bistritsa (a tributary of the Beli Drim) comes out of the picturesque Duvska Klisura (gorge). The town is partly built on the northern slopes of the Shar Mountains, beneath the ruins of a huge mediaeval and Ottoman citadel, and partly in the plain. Prizren is situated 55 km/34 miles north-west of Üsküb/Skopje and 125 km/77 miles east of the important north Albanian city of Iskenderiye/S̲h̲koder, with which it is linked by a good road over a pass through the Albanian mountains, one since 1912 largely disused, however.

According to C. Jireček and those following him, the present town is the successor of the Roman city of Theranda; but extensive archaeological research in the present town has found nothing older than the Middle Byzantine period. The town is first mentioned in 1019 as the seat of an Orthodox bishop. It seems that between 1169-90, as a result of the Serbo-Byzantine wars, the town was in Serbian hands. In this last-mentioned year it became again Byzantine, and in 1204 it was included in the Second Bulgarian Empire. In the mid-13th century, when the Bulgarian ¶ state collapsed, Prizren was again taken by the Serbians and remained part of their kingdom (later empire) until the Ottoman conquest in 1455. In these two centuries, the Serbians erected a number of important buildings in and around the town. In 1307 King Milutin reconstructed and enlarged the episcopal church of the Byzantines and had it adorned with high-quality fresco paintings. This is the church of Bogorodica Ljeviška, one of the most important monuments of Orthodox Christian art of the Balkans and still in perfect shape. Just outside the town, in the gorge of the Bistritsa, Tsar Dušan (1331-55) constructed the huge marble monastery of the Archangels, which became his imperial sepulcre after his death. Dušan had made Prizren the capital of the Serbian state. Milutin’s and Dušan’s noblemen constructed a number of other churches in Prizren, of which some are still preserved, largely in original shape (Sv. Spas below the castle).

In 1455, during the war against Vilk-oğlu (George Branković) the Ottomans took Prizren. The fact is apparently not mentioned in the early Ottoman chroniclers, who only mention the capture of the nearby silver mine towns of Novo Brdo and Trepča. Prizren was immediately made the seat of a sand̲j̲aḳ bey. There are some vague indications of an earlier conquest of the town, under Murād I, but this had no lasting consequences, if it took place at all. The sultan had a garrison stationed in the Prizren castle, and converted the cathedral of King Milutin into a Friday Mosque, which became known as D̲j̲āmiʿ-i ʿAtīḳ, or D̲j̲umʿa D̲j̲āmiʿ, by which name it is known in the waḳf-nāme of Kukli Bey from 944/1537-8, and as: “D̲j̲āmiʿ-i Sulṭān Meḥemmed K̲h̲ān” in the census register Tapu Defter 368 (p. 43), which dates from the time of the first Grand Vizierate of Rüstem Pas̲h̲a (1544-53). In the Serbian literature, the conversion is supposed to have taken place in the course of the 18th century, the Ottoman sources and the reports of the Catholic bishop-visitator Pietro Masarechi from 1623-4 being wholly ignored. It seems that the monastery of the Archangels was plundered by the Ottomans during the conquest, but survived and functioned throughout most of the 16th century. The mufaṣṣal registers of ca. 1550 (T.D. 368, p. 51) and from 1569-70 (T.D. 495, p. 46) still mention the “Manasti̊r-i̊ Arhangel” paying 50 aḳčes per year as tax for its property. In the town itself, the Christians kept a number of churches for their own use.

There are no records about the size and appearance of mediaeval Serbian Prizren. The walled town, built on a hill which is surrounded by a loop of the Bistritsa, covers two ha and could have contained 300-400 inhabitants. The greater part of the open town was clustered on the steep slopes below this citadel, but the preserved cathedral of B. Ljeviška in the plain, several hundred metres to the north of the castle, suggests that the town also spread out there, following the river and the main road to the north. In the words of the best scholar of the old Serbian culture of bygone days, Jireček, it should not be imagined as being more than a Bretterbudenstadt. Perhaps the town had 2,000-2,500 inhabitants, which for the time and the place was considerable.

At the time of the conquest, a sizeable group of Muslim Turkish colonists must have settled in the town, setting up their own maḥalles, especially in the plain beneath the castle. The first reliable numbers on the population of Prizren are contained in the Tapu Defter no. 167 from 1530-1, which is based on the information taken during the census of the first years of the reign of Süleymān the Magnificent. At that time the Muslims, 273 households in all, of which 40 were aḳi̊nd̲j̲i̊s, lived in four maḥalles. The Christians, 396 households, lived in nine maḥalles. The town might have had 3,300-3,400 inhabitants. Islamic life was still little developed. Besides the Mosque of Sultan Meḥemmed, there were only a few mesd̲j̲ids, financed from their own waḳfs. The Defter mentions: Mesd̲j̲id of Yaʿḳūb Bey, Rikābdār of Sultan Meḥemmed K̲h̲ān, Mesd̲j̲id of Kātib Sinān and the Mesd̲j̲id of Ayās Bey. The Mosque of Sultan Meḥemmed had no waḳf of its own but was financed from the poll-tax of the district of Prizren, a rather common procedure for sultanic mosques in the Balkans (cf. Mal. müd. 5625, p. 17).

In the course of the 16th and early 17th centuries, the town did not grow very much, but gained slowly a predominantly Islamic character, due to the slow conversion of the local population (1570: 13% converts) and through the erection of a large number of Muslim buildings. This process of change can be followed with help of the three taḥrīr defters zters and a mufaṣṣal ʿawāriḍ defter:

¶

The stability of the internal situation in the 16th century can be seen from the size of the garrison of the castle of Prizren; in 1530 and 1550 it contained only twenty soldiers, serving under a Dizdār, a Ketk̲h̲üdā and an Imām. The Ottoman registers allow us to follow the expansion of Islamic life in the town. In 1513 the poet Sūzī Čelebi, writer of the important G̲h̲azawātnāme-i Mīk̲h̲āl-og̲h̲lu ʿAlī Bey, had the waḳfiyye for his mosque and school in Prizren drawn up. Sūzī Čelebi (real name: Meḥmed b. Maḥmūd b. ʿAbd Allāh) died in 1522 and was buried in a türbe behind his mosque. Both buildings are still extant. Two years later another poet of Prizren, Nehāri (Ramaḍān Efendi), allegedly Sūzī’s brother, died and was buried in the same türbe. The tombstones of both men are likewise preserved. In S̲h̲awwāl 944/March 1538, the sand̲j̲aḳ bey Kukli Meḥmed Bey founded a mosque in the town, which still exists today, and had the road from the Albanian ports of Les̲h̲ and S̲h̲koder secured by the construction of 17 caravanserais. In the town, he built 117 shops providing revenue for his foundations. Another indicator to the growing commercial importance ¶ of the town is the presence of 80 shops belonging to the waḳf of Ewrenos-og̲h̲lu Aḥmed Bey (died 1506) and a ḥammām, providing revenue for his foundations in Yeñid̲j̲e-yi Vardar in (Greek) Macedonia. In 1570 the number of shops had grown to 99. In 1573 the sand̲j̲aḳ bey of Iskenderiye/S̲h̲koder, Meḥmed Pas̲h̲a, had a large domed mosque erected in Prizren, which later became known as the Bayraḳli̊ D̲j̲āmiʿ. This foundation included a medrese, a mekteb, a large double bath, a library and a türbe for the founder. All these buildings still exist today, the mosque and the ḥammām largely in original shape. The library contains a large number of manuscripts, on religion, medicine, mathematics and history. The Grand Vizier Yemen Fātiḥi Sinān Pas̲h̲a was to add books to this library in 1589. The medrese of Meḥmed Pas̲h̲a functioned till 1947. In 1022/1613, the vizier Ṣofu Sinān Pas̲h̲a, a native Albanian from the Prizren area, erected the largest mosque in the town, whose huge dome became one of the architectural dominant features of the town. A medrese once belonged to it. For the construction of the mosque, the stones of the by now deserted Monastery of the H. Archangels were used, and these are clearly visible at the structure. In the literature, Sinān Pas̲h̲a is often confused with Yemen Fātiḥi Sinān Pas̲h̲a, who originated from the same district (Lume belonging to Prizren), as did Ṣofu Sinān, who was governor of Buda, Bosnia and finally of Damascus. He died around 1615. His Prizren mosque belongs to the largest and most monumental ones of the entire Balkans. The expansion of Islamic life in the town can best be shown in a table, based on the surveys of the waḳfs as indicated in the taḥrīrs:

In 1606 and 1614 Prizren is described enthousiastically in the reports of the visiting Catholic bishops Mario Bizzi and Pietro Masarechi, who praised the beauty of the houses, all having courtyards and fountains and a multitude of green and trees. Bizzi maintains that Prizren contained 8,600 houses, of which only 30 were Roman Catholic, having their own church. There were many schismatics (Orthodox), with two churches of their own. It is interesting to remark that the bishop maintains that “in this part of Serbia the inhabitants speak Albanian”, a remark also made by Masarechi as pertaining to the town itself. For the villages, the presence of Albanians is confirmed by the Ottoman taḥrīrs. In Serbian historiography, the Albanisation and Islamisation of Kosovo has to be seen as a result of the mass emigration of the Serbs after the Christian revolts and Habsburg invasion at the end of the 17th century and the subsequent settlement of Albanians on the vacated lands. The conversion of the great church of Bogorodica Ljeviška is therefore also placed in the early 18th century. According to Masarachi, Prizren had 12,000 Turkish ( = Muslim) inhabitants, 600 Serbian inhabitants and 200 Catholics. Only the numbers of the two Christian communities look more or less realistic when compared with the Ottoman data.

 

Prizren and its district suffered terribly from the invasion of the Habsburg army under Piccolomini in the winter of 1689-90, during which the city was burnt ¶ down and a large part of the Muslim population slaughtered. According to the late 19th century historian Ṭāhir Efendi, who used local memory and now unavailable sources, only 60 Muslim families survived. With the help of Albanian Muslims from the unoccupied mountains, the Ottomans succeeded in driving back the Habsburgs and their Serbian and Albanian-Christian auxiliaries, after which terrible vengeance was taken on the remaining Christians. This led to the “Great Exodus” of the Serbs of Kosovo under their Patriarch Arsenije III Crnojević. The Austrian invasion of 1737 led to a repetition of these events. After these disturbances a certain Ṣāliḥ Ag̲h̲a from the village of Nenkovac near Prizren, who had exerted himself in the expulsion of the Austrians, repaired many mosques and schools in Prizren and reorganised normal life in the district, for which he received the title of Pas̲h̲a. Ṣāliḥ Pas̲h̲a is the founder of the hereditary dynasty of the (Albanian) Pas̲h̲as of the Rotulla family, which was to rule Prizren till well into the 19th century. Ṣāliḥ was succeeded by his son Emr Allāh Pas̲h̲a. The son of the latter, Ṭāhir Pas̲h̲a, fought against Ḳara Maḥmūd Bus̲h̲aṭli̊, the powerful Albanian derebey [q.v.] of S̲h̲koder, who occupied Prizren in 1795 and drove Ṭāhir Pas̲h̲a away. In 1805 Saʿīd Pas̲h̲a, son of Ṭāhir, became sand̲j̲aḳ bey of Prizren. In 1806 he fought against the rebellious Serbs, a fact memoralised in numerous folksongs. From 1809 till 1836 Prizren was governed by Maḥmūd Pas̲h̲a, the most important of the Rotulla dynasty. In 1809 he helped to destroy the Serbian insurgents near Niš [see nis̲h̲] and subsequently conquered Semendere/Smederevo and Belgrade. As symbols of his victory, he took the bells of the clock towers of Smederevo with him and placed them in three new clock towers which he constructed in the citadel of Prizren and in the large villages of Orahovica and Mamus̲h̲a. In 1821 Maḥmūd Pas̲h̲a participated in the suppression of the Greek Revolt. He is especially known for the large mosque, the medrese and the mekteb he had erected in Prizren. Maḥmūd Pas̲h̲a also rebuilt the mosque in the Prizren castle and repaired the great ḥammām of Meḥmed Pas̲h̲a and the Mosque of Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Ḳāsi̊m, which is already mentioned in the waḳfiyye of Kukli Meḥmed Bey from 1537-8. In 1831 Maḥmūd Pas̲h̲a sided with the rebellious Albanian vizier Muṣṭafā Bus̲h̲aṭli̊ but was beaten by the forces of Res̲h̲īd Pas̲h̲a. He was finally removed in 1836, banished to Anatolia and executed there. His brother Emīn Pas̲h̲a Rotulla succeeded him and remained in charge till his death in 1259/1843. In 1247/1831, Emīn Pas̲h̲a constructed the last great mosque of Prizren and the fourth and last medrese of the city. The mosque still stands, a large domed structure which is visibly inspired by the 200 years’ earlier mosque of Ṣofu Sinān Pas̲h̲a. Emīn Pas̲h̲a had only one child, his daughter Umm Kult̲h̲ūm, which is the reason that the rule of the Rotulla pas̲h̲as over Prizren ended. In 1327/1909, Umm Kult̲h̲ūm, then living in the Istanbul suburb of Üsküdār, drew up her waḳfiyye for the mekteb she had founded in Prizren.

In 1843, within the framework of the reorganisation of the eyālets, Prizren became the capital, instead of Üsküp/Skopje, of a large administrative unit. This had a positive effect on the population of the town, which grew rapidly. In 1865 the experienced traveler Johann Georg von Hahn called “Prisrend” the “largest city of Albania”, bigger than Yenişehir/Larissa, Yannina or S̲h̲koder, and probably even bigger than Monasti̊r. According to the statement of the Austrian consular agent Dr. von Petelenz, who lived many years in the city, there were 11,540 ¶ houses, of which 8,400 were Muslim, 3,000 Orthodox and 150 Catholic. In them lived 46,000 inhabitants, 36,000 of whom were Muslims. According to the same source, Prizren had 26 mosques, two Orthodox churches and one Catholic church, as well as 17 mektebs for boys and nine for girls, one Rüs̲h̲diyye school, and a school for the Orthodox and Catholic communities each. At this time, Prizren was the arms factory of the Balkans, producing swords, all sorts of rifles and pistols as well as excellent saffian leather and a large textile production; silversmiths were especially famous. The population was Turkish, Albanian, Bulgarian/Serbian and Vlach, and most people spoke all these languages because they lived mixed together and not in segregated maḥalles, a situation which can be seen as early as 1643 in the ʿawāriḍ defter of that year. From 1868 till 1874, Prizren was the capital of the wilāyet of Perzerīn. In 1288/1871, a bilingual Turkish-Serbian weekly Perzerin started its existence. In 1874, however, the large wilāyet was split up into several different units, apparently to counteract the too strong Albanian influence. After this date, the expansion of the city began to stagnate, especially when the new railway from Selānik/Thessaloniki to Kosovo caused a change in the trade network and left Prizren largely outside it. From 1878 till 1881, the Albanian nationalist movement called the “League of Prizren” met in the dersk̲h̲āne of the medrese of Meḥmed Pas̲h̲a in Prizren, trying to keep the “Four Albanian wilāyets” (S̲h̲koder, Kosovo, Manasti̊r and Yanya) together and to prevent Serbian and Greek annexation, attempts which ultimately failed.

In October 1912, during the First Balkan War, the Serbian army under General Janković took Prizren, which was accompanied by a massacre of the Muslim population, according to contemporary press reports amounting to 12,000 victims. After the conquest, the citadel and all its buildings were blown up, the mosque of Sultan Meḥemmed the Conqueror was made into a church and the buildings of Rotulla Maḥmūd Pas̲h̲a, the victor of Belgrade and Smederevo, were totally destroyed. Later, a beginning was made at demolishing the great mosque of Ṣofu Sinān Pas̲h̲a, but violent popular protests saved the greater part of the building, its three-domed porch being lost. From the events of 1912 and from the subsequent neglect in the interwar period, Prizren never recovered. In 1961 it still numbered as few as 28,056 inhabitants. Even after the settlement of some industry and the connection with the railroad network after World War II, the city remained smaller than it had been at its height in the 19th century. Neglect and poverty, however, saved it from ugly modernisations. After the War, extensive works of restoration and conservation were carried out on the Christian as well as on the Muslim historical monuments.

In the 16th century Prizren was, in the words of the biographer and prolific writer ʿĀs̲h̲i̊ḳ Čelebi [q.v.], himself a native of Prizren (born 1518 or 1520, died in Üsküb/ Skopje 979/1571), a “fountain of poets”. Besides Sūzī Čelebi, Nehārī and ʿĀs̲h̲i̊ḳ himself, there lived the poet Muʾmin and the mystical poet Semʿī Behārī. Saʿyī from Prizren wrote a Fetḥ ḳalʿa-yi Belg̲r̲ad. Sud̲j̲ūtī, who is often represented as a native of Kalkandelen/Totovo, was in fact from Prizren; he wrote a Selīm-nāme during that sultan’s reign and built a bridge at Prizren. Ted̲j̲elli (d. D̲h̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda 1100/August-September 1689) is another poet worth mentioning because of his dīwān. An important 18th century literary ʿĀd̲j̲izī figure was the poet and dervish leader Süleymān Efendi, the founder of the ʿĀd̲j̲iziyye branch of the Saʿdiyye dervish order, who ¶ lived and died in Prizren (1151/1738). His türbe, with a magnificent wooden dome, is still extant and held in veneration. The most important 19th century figure is K̲h̲ōd̲j̲a Ṭāhir Efendi, teacher in the medrese of Emīn Pas̲h̲a, whose great work is a Tārīk̲h̲-i Perzerin, written in Arabic rhyming prose, the publication of which is an urgent desiratum for the history of Ottoman culture in the Balkans.

Prizren was and still is a centre of dervish life. The presence of the Sināniyye order dates from 998/1589-90, when S̲h̲eyk̲h̲ Mūsā Efendi founded a tekke of the this order in the Ṭabaḳ-k̲h̲āne Maḥalle. The Ḳādiriyye order apparently came in 1066/1655-6, when S̲h̲eyk̲h̲ Ḥasan, son of S̲h̲eyk̲h̲ Maḳṣūd, founded the still-existing tekke of this order in the Ḳurila Maḥalle. The Ḳarabās̲h̲iyye branch of the K̲h̲alwetiyye came into being in 1111/1699-1700. S̲h̲eyk̲h̲ ʿOt̲h̲mān Efendi from Serres founded the still-existing tekke of this order. A second tekke of the Sināniyye was founded in 1118/1706-7. The ʿĀd̲j̲iziyye branch of the Saʿdiyye has already been mentioned. The Bektas̲h̲ī order is also said to have been active in Prizren, and some Melāmī groups still exist. Of more recent date is the now very active Rifāʿiyye, whose tekke was wholly rebuilt in 1972 by the present (1993) S̲h̲eyk̲h̲ Džemali Zukić, replacing a late 19th century foundation. The Newrūz ceremony in this tekke is one of the greatest events in dervish life of all of the former Yugoslav territories.

 

(M. Kiel)

Bibliography

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The Ottoman taḥrīrs from 1530, 1550 and 1570, and the d̲j̲izye and ʿawāriḍ defters from 1591 and 1643, preserved in the Başbakanlık Arşivi in Istanbul, have not yet been published.

Citation

Kiel, M.. ” Prizren.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill Online , 2012. Reference. School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS). 15 December 2012 <http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/prizren-SIM_6143&gt;